"In this moment of unprecedented humanitarian crises, the representations of global disasters are increasingly common media themes around the world. The Routledge Companion to Media and Humanitarian Action explores the interconnections between media, old and new, and the humanitarian challenges that
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have come to define the twenty-first century. Contributors, including media professionals and experts in humanitarian affairs, grapple with what kinds of media language, discourse, terms, and campaigns can offer enough context and background knowledge to nurture informed global citizens. Case studies of media practices, content analysis and evaluation of media coverage, and representations of humanitarian emergencies and affairs offer further insight into the ways in which strategic communications are designed and implemented in field of humanitarian action." (Publisher description)
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"Andersen explores the definition of humanitarian communication, its history, language, visual renderings, and narrative structures. Building on the historical effects of media depictions and their relationship to aid appeals and public response, t
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he chapter engages the concepts of empathy and compassion, post-humanitarianism, the formulation of an ironic spectator, the contentious notion of compassion fatigue, the ethics of solidarity, and the articulation of global citizenship. She discusses the challenges that complex emergencies and human suffering pose to journalists, media organizations, and aid agencies, and addresses the media pitfalls and dominant critiques of crisis representation. From early-published photographs of starving children, to contemporary aid appeals for Syrian Refugees, issues of stereotypes and narrative exclusions are understood along a trajectory of historical development and context." (Introduction to part 1, page 10)
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"'Half the Sky' is an ambitious humanitarian documentary about the global crises in gender discrimination. Based on Nicholas Kristof and Sheryl WuDunn's book (Kristof and WuDunn 2010), the nearly four-hour documentary visits six countries to explore six issues: gender-based violence in Sierra Leone,
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sex trafficking in Cambodia, education in Vietnam, female genital mutilation in Somaliland, intergenerational prostitution in India, and economic empowerment in Kenya. Heather McIntosh explores the role of celebrity in telling these stories. Six American actresses, each of whom visits a country, meet local activists and survivors, and leam about the situation. Drawing on scholarship about documentary representation and celebrity, McIntosh engages critical perspectives that charge that the appearance of notable personalities simplifies complex issues, and overshadows survivors' voices. She evaluates the success of 'Half the Sky' and the film's attempt to cast celebrities as moral agents helping viewers emotionally connect to the issues and the people involved. Ultimately, she questions the film's ability to overcome the tensions between suffering and poverty, and glamour and Western privilege." (Introduction to part 7, page 380-381)
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"The author bases her analysis on five years of fieldwork in the conflict zones of Mindanao, the Philippines, where child protection is of critical importance. She works with the Nonviolent Peaceforce, which specializes in Unarmed Civilian Protection in close cooperation with the United Nations and
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UNICEF to report and respond to Child Protection issues in Mindanao and the surrounding islands. In the field, she sought to implement the humanitarian principles of neutrality and impartiality among the parties to the various conflicts. She established an active presence, and gained access to remote conflict-affected areas. Such work seeks to document and ultimately protect children, civilians and internally displaced persons (IDPs) who are suffering as a result of the armed conflicts. This chapter offers a close examination of UNICEF's communication and media strategies, as well as behind-the-scenes advocacy and in-person contact under difficult physical conditions and terrain." (Introduction to part 6, page 306)
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"This chapter aims to introduce the concept of an information intervention as an example of humanitarian action. Typically associated negatively with government efforts to incite conflict and tension, two case studies are explored-Haiti and Syria-to better understand how state-led information interv
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entions can contribute to the restoration of normalcy (Haiti) and the development of community-led civil society (Syria). Of course, both Haiti and Syria remain in flux, making it difficult to draw firm conclusions on the efficacy of these efforts. That said, in both cases, there is evidence of effectiveness. Reports from Haiti indicate that the information intervention provided a crucial backbone for additional humanitarian relief, without which Haitians would have faced far worse devastation. In Syria, the emergence of a robust civil society sector, despite the fact that nearly half of Syrians are now internally or externally displaced, speaks to the capacity for open communications mediums and technologies to facilitate productive storytelling and information sharing." (Conclusion)
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"In April 2014, Boko Haram, a militant Islamist group, abducted over 200 Nigerian girls from the town of Chibok in Nigeria. The kidnapping caused global outrage and the local community responded by designing an online social media campaign they called "Bring Back Our Girls" that used Facebook and Tw
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itter and quickly went viral. The campaign garnered worldwide attention and as interest grew, celebrity participation increased. In the United States, First Lady Michelle Obama was part of a massive appeal for the terrorist group to return the community's children. Dorothy Njoroge seeks to understand the role of online community activism. Questioning whether such campaigns provide opportunities for global citizenship, her research grapples with the debate over whether social media campaigns should be understood as mere "clicktivism," or if they are able to lead to other forms of political participation and off line involvement. She explores the discursive constructions of the Facebook postings using three action frames drawn from social movement literature-diagnostic, prognostic, and motivational. She concludes that given broad global lack of effective institutionalized leadership, social media campaigns may perhaps speak to the beginnings of a growing people's movement powered by technology." (Introduction to part 8, page 436-437)
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"Piers Robinson revisits the debates over what has been called the "CNN effect," a term that assumes media coverage of crises invariably leads to instigating humanitarian responses. While many claimed that interventions during humanitarian crises were influenced by media reporting of suffering peopl
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e, early research indicated that influence was more conditional and dependent upon factors such as policy uncertainty, the political risks, and costs associated with the intervention. Since 9/11, the emergence of the "war on terror" has seen humanitarianism exploited in order to justify invasions of Iraq and Afghanistan and the co-optation of humanitarian organizations as part of winning "hearts and minds." Even though new communication technologies appear to offer the potential for more effective humanitarian responses, the overall space for genuine humanitarian action would appear to have shrunk by the use of it for manipulative organized persuasive communication (propaganda) purposes in the context of the "war on terror" and the aggressive pursuit of perceived Western interests." (Introduction to part 9, page 502-503)
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"In this essay, a different way to approach reporting on natural disasters has been suggested. It requires news reporters and their editors to recognize that there are progressive unions and allied organizations that exist, and because of their rootedness in their various communities across the coun
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try, that they can help provide more honest and accurate accounts of natural disasters than can be gained from government officials and outside NGO staff-members. It has been argued that gaining access through these local organizations can provide approaches to news reporting that actually help the affected community heal, by portraying survivors as active protagonists to overcoming the death and destruction instead of helpless victims." (Conclusion)
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"Heather Bourbeau finds that in a crisis, media professionals and humanitarian aid providers negotiate a delicate balance between thorough and consistent coverage, and coverage that sensationalizes a crisis and leads to hysteria, misery, and fatigue. In "F" Bourbeau compares the media coverage of th
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e Ebola crisis in Liberia to reporting on the Second Congo War in the DRC. She finds that when the topic is a contagious disease outbreak, media themes can swing the international community into action, but can also create unnecessary fear in countries far from the affected areas. By contrast, ongoing conflicts such as the war in the DRC often become background noise relegated to the back pages of major newspapers, if covered at all by the international press. She concludes that without continued media interest and informed coverage the international community's response becomes dulled or muted and atrocities can be overlooked despite a continuous need for assistance and diplomatic efforts." (Introduction to part 4, page 186)
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"This chapter examined compassion as a news value in the humanitarian coverage of the 2014 war in Gaza by French and UK broadcasters to show the extent to which victims of foreign conflict can be portrayed with greater and lesser degrees of compassion … The study demonstrates that compassion as a
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news value is highly contextual, and in some cases was found to be insufficient as a dominant news characteristic. Coverage displayed other dominant news values such as negativity, violence and graphic imagery of the dead and wounded, and the elite value of world leaders. It confirmed that a hierarchy of victims can be identified in coverage of humanitarian suffering. For example, coverage by 20 Heures of related protests in Paris revealed that domestic victims may quickly displace remote others because of their cultural and geographical proximity. News at Ten provided a predominantly humanitarian coverage with direct interaction with victims while 20 Heures preferred less emotive and more one-dimensional coverage supported throughout with analytical, factual information. The findings not only provided insight into compassion as a news value but also shed light on it as an emotion among the warring parties, demonstrating the difficulty, if not impossibility, of displaying compassion for the enemy, regardless of their state of suffering." (Conclusion)
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"Suzanne Franks discusses how the visually dominated storytelling of famines in Africa distorted the causes of famine and therefore obscured the most effective solutions. As journalists struggled to document the depths of human suffering, humanitarian communication in these early stages raised compa
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ssion, concern, and actions of all sorts, but also helped to extend the conflicts and misled global publics by offering simple explanations for complex circumstances. In addition, it left in its wake a legacy, and a visual convention of stereotypic imagery, of The Starving African; anonymous, vulnerable, powerless, and forever waiting for food from the West." (Introduction to part 4, page 186)
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"Nadia Sraieb-Koepp shares her experiences designing participatory media campaigns and visual strategies that helped facilitate the democratic transition in Tunisia in 2011. She offers her thoughts about the need for inclusive social media strategies designed to counter recruitment messages targetin
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g youth by violent extremists." (Introduction to part 5, page 241)
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"The article discusses the film 'Last Station Before Hell' by Pierre-Olivier François. United Nations' Peacekeepers known as the Blue Helmets, are often the subject of criticism and negative press reports. Most notably they have been blamed for transmitting cholera to the victims of the earthquake
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that struck the island nation of Haiti in 2010. The UN reluctantly admitted its role in bringing the Peacekeepers who brought the disease to the island, and has finally agreed to compensate the people of Haiti. Based on his experience at the United Nations in New York as a press attaché in charge of the General Assembly and the Security Council, filmmaker Pierre-Olivier François was asked to make a film about the United Nations peacekeeping forces for the seventieth anniversary of the world body. In this chapter, François discusses the making of the documentary, and he details the challenges posed by the mostly negative media frames applied to UN Peacekeepers." (Introduction to part 7, page 381)
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"This chapter has outlined the philosophical motivations and strategic practices of philanthrocapitalists, interrogating the key place of communication technology and media storytelling within their humanitarian activities. It also explored the central critiques of philanthrocapitalism that have eme
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rged in response, suggesting that oppositional narratives have played only a minor role in public sphere debates. Fundamentally, philanthrocapitalists have recognized the key role that advocacy plays in setting the agenda of media, policymakers, and the public, cultivating a number of powerful tools to ensure that the stones that get the most attention are those that reflect their own priorities and strategies for humanitarian action. Indeed, at a time when approximately 63 percent of Americans get their news from Facebook, the philanthrocapitalist agenda of the newly created Chan-Zuckerberg Initiative might have the best media platform yet to shape and measure the perspectives of the public. Looking forward, it seems that some balance is needed between recognizing the good work that these philanthrocapitalists can achieve, on one hand, while having opportunities to hold them accountable and propose alternative solutions, on the other." (Conclusion)
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"Two major media revolutions transformed the humanitarian response to disasters facing the Arab Gulf States, namely the 1991 launch of Pan-Arab satellite TV channels, and the 2010 advent of social media. Drawing on her own professional experience, the author argues that both media revolutions have h
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ad positive effects on humanitarian response in GCC countries and the Arab region. She explores the impact of mainstream Pan-Arab satellite TV channels in successful fundraising through telethons and 24/7 news reporting, resulting in an increasing awareness of humanitarian needs. A new public understanding of accountability in the distribution of mobilized resources has also emerged. Obaid has detailed the use of social media and the connections forged between volunteers, donors, and the victims of conflict and disaster. Both facets of the media revolution have the potential to become more relevant and effective in raising awareness of humanitarian crises, delivering relief, and helping the victims recover. Technological empowerment and skills-based media training will facilitate media accessibility and use, and are the ways forward in creating sustained, effective, and timely humanitarian response in the Arab region, and beyond." (Introduction to part 6, page 304)
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"Adama Dieng and Simona Cruciani articulate how hate speech is defined, and draw out its possible consequences. Dieng makes the distinction between hate speech and incitement. Incitement is a very dangerous form of hate speech that can trigger violence and, in some instances, atrocity crimes and eve
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n genocide. He makes a distinction between a person standing on a street corner who may say vile, racist things, but such invective will not have the same impact as the words spoken by a national leader who calls for violence against a particular group at a time when political tensions are high. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) states that, "Any advocacy of national, racial or religious hatred that constitutes incitement to discrimination, hostility or violence shall be prohibited by law."' Hate speech and its uses to incite hostility and violence is escalating in many parts of the world, increasingly spread over social media. Dieng and Cruciami discuss the many initiatives within the United Nations system aimed at countering hate speech and incitement, underscoring how seriously the organization takes this form of expression." (Introduction to part 1, page 11)
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"In recent years, authorities have banned the use of drones for journalism in many countries. Therefore, it is valid to claim that practicing drone journalism often leads to questions of freedom of the press, the right to receive ideas and information, and also the freedom of expression. Clearly, th
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e best opportunities for developing drone journalism are in those countries that respect human rights, freedom of the press, and the right to obtain information. There are certainly a great many countries that bear little or no such respect, and also those where legal scholarship, as well as initial practical cases on this subject, are still developing. The ethical codes are also still under construction. The basics of journalism ethics are, indeed, very valid when practicing drone journalism. In addition, the discussion of drone journalism ethics has so far mainly focused on safety and privacy issues, with more analysis needed of the ways in which background information and context can be included by reporters using drones." (Conclusion)
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"Anne Skjelmerud and Ivar Evensmo, both senior advisers at the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation, present a tour d'horizon of Norway's pioneering engagement to change the asymmetrical North-South news flow, a legacy of the colonial area, in order to improve the global flow of information.
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Their essay is drawn from decades of field experience and professional analysis that involves media policy and humanitarian action. Norway discovered and explored a practical partnership approach to local media support for development, peace building, democracy, and human rights in the Balkans in the 1990s. They argue that a trusted relationship must be based on sound principles of collaboration, otherwise it may be vulnerable to opportunistic behavior from both sides. The essay analyses how media development has emerged as a field of knowledge and practice. Norad's Human Rights Approach emphasizes people's rights to participation, non-discrimination, and accountability in life-saving operations. It covers development programs, advocacy and educational endeavors, while taking democratic engagement seriously. The essay gives examples of how media and communication can act as informational platforms for peace building, development and social change. However, this requires close collaboration between providers of peace and security, humanitarian and long-term development support. When done right, support to media and communication can have strong, long-term impact. They point out that today Norway is one of the ten largest international supporters of independent media and other activities promoting Freedom of Expression, which in turn has a tremendous impact on media coverage of the field of humanitarian action." (Introduction to part 3, page 132-133)
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"This volume is designed to revolutionize the field of communication by identifying a broad ethical theory which transcends the world of mass media practice to reveal a more humane and responsible code of values. The contributors, representing a diverse range of intercultural perspectives, defend th
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e possibility of universal moral imperatives such as justice, reciprocity and human dignity. Through an examination of the values in which their cultures are grounded, they provide a short list of ethical principles which form the common ground from which to view contemporary issues in the media, interpersonal communication, mediation and conflict resolution." (Publisher description)
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