"Journalists have always worked amidst risks to their safety; risks that have become all the more exacerbated in the digital age. Scholarship has documented journalists confronting cyberattacks, various forms of harassment, verbal abuse and hate speech, as well as legal threats from a variety of act
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ors, including audiences, sources, political powers, and organised criminals, among others. Such threats cause journalists psychological and physical harm and injury, including anxiety, burnout, and depression. In response, academia, industry, and think tanks have devised tools and policies to support journalists in doing their work safely. However, this chapter argues that approaching safety primarily in terms of external threats directed at journalists as a collective professional body, obscures the many ways in which journalism on an institutional, epistemic/paradigmatic level and organisational, newsroom culture level is an equally unsafe space for marginalized journalists. Drawing on concepts of ‘symbolic violence’ and ‘double burden,’ I consider the harmful impact that gendered, classed, and racialized forms of discrimination and socialization within the field have on marginalized journalists’ psychological and potentially physical wellbeing. As such, marginalized journalists work not only amidst safety threats emanating from outside of the field, but also from within it. To conclude, I suggest scholarly work rely on intersectional approaches to interrogate intra-field forms of unsafety at institutional, organisational, and individual levels, and envision solutions and approaches that disrupt dominant journalistic paradigms." (Abstract)
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"This chapter examines the digital surveillance and harassment experiences faced by female journalists in Zimbabwe in the 2023 pre-election period covering the year 2022 up to August 2023. The examination is based on interviews conducted with seven purposefully selected female reporters and editors
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in Zimbabwe. It suggests that within our information-driven society, both personal data and physical bodies are subject to surveillance; for female journalists in particular, this surveillance materialises as instances of harassment occurring both online and offline, including within newsroom settings. Evidence shows that there is both the physical and psychological intimidation of female journalists and periods of political unrests are particularly unsettling. Female journalists are subject to unique forms of hostility absent in their male counterparts’ experiences. To cope the journalists, adopt various survival strategies, from cyber defence techniques and keeping a low online profile to outright evasion or extreme cases of leaving the country. The female journalists advocate for thorough protection measures, including legal reforms, strict penalties, and holding online platforms accountable. They emphasise the importance of mental health support, training, and guidance from media organizations, in addition to institutional and legislative action. The chapter employs a feminist perspective to highlight the importance of power dynamics in surveillance. Feminist politics within media call for women not only to be visible but also heard, which can only occur if they have representation in decision-making processes that shape news coverage and can write stories without fearing harassment. Drawing inspiration from the Panopticon theory of surveillance, this chapter explores the idea that individuals may be monitored without their awareness. With this framework in mind, three key questions are addressed: Did journalists experience any form of digital or physical surveillance? Were they subjected to any type of harassment stemming from such monitoring? And did they receive support from media organizations during these incidents?" (Abstract)
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"In March 2023, a Zimbabwean government official caused a storm after threatening journalists with arrests for reporting on an Al Jazeera documentary that exposed alleged money laundering, gold smuggling and other criminal activities in the country. Journalists and media groups interpreted these utt
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erances as a violation of free expression and veiled attacks on the media. This study uses this incident of a threat to silence and discipline newsmakers as an entry point to examine the state of the safety of journalists in the Zimbabwean context. It probes the nature and form of harassment and threats against journalists ahead of the country’s national elections in 2023. Journalists across the globe are increasingly faced with safety risks as they are vulnerable to harassment in both online and offline spaces. News reporters are at risk of being arrested, detained, tortured and killed whilst carrying out their journalistic mandate. This qualitative study draws upon insights from journalists across media houses in the country to make sense of the safety issues in the context of national elections that tend to be characterised by political instability and violence. Through in-depth interviews with journalists such as those who have been physically harassed for carrying out their work, this chapter develops an understanding of the nature, trends and patterns of the harassment during the election campaign season." (Abstract)
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"The freedom of the press is a cornerstone of democracy and a critical component of a functioning society. In Kenya, like many other countries, journalists face a myriad of challenges when reporting on sensitive issues, including corruption and government wrongdoing. These challenges include physica
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l, verbal, and legal harassment, threats, pressure, and censorship due to media ownership and government control. This study employed semi-structured qualitative interviews to explore the perspectives of journalists in Kenya regarding the country’s current state of press freedom. The study defined a journalist as a professional who collects, writes, reports, or disseminates news or other information to the public via different mediums, including print, broadcast, internet, or social media, with or without an affiliation to a media organization. Findings suggest that journalists in Kenya face various forms of harassment and threats, including physical, verbal, and legal, mainly when reporting on sensitive issues such as corruption and government wrongdoing. The study also found that media ownership and government control significantly impact press freedom and independent reporting. Journalists often face pressure from media owners and government officials to avoid specific topics or to report in a certain way. The chapter concludes with recommendations for addressing these challenges, including improving legal protections for journalists, promoting media ownership transparency, and supporting independent media." (Abstract)
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"Amid growing threats to journalists around the world, this study examines the nature of repression, harassment and attacks on full-time employed journalists and freelance writers in Eswatini. Given that harassment ranges from doxing, surveillance, religious prejudice, threats to harm family members
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and young children, the study will be guided by the following research questions: (1) What is the nature of abuse, repression and attacks faced by journalists? (2) What are the challenges that journalists, both male and female, face in the journalism profession in these two countries? and (3) What measures or steps, if any, are journalists taking to curb the harassment that they face? We use Eswatini as a case study due to the continued nature of harassment that journalists face when they report on corruption or when their reportage are deemed critical of those in power. For Eswatini, the last monarch in Africa has had a lasting reputation of suppressing journalists’ right to freedom of expression and of press, with impunity. The study will make use of semi-structured interviews with journalists from these two countries. Theoretically, we make use of Nerone’s typology of anti-press violence to understand the nature of harassment faced by journalists from the two countries." (Abstract)
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"Local journalists in South Sudan have faced enormous threats from security groups, politicians and powerful individuals in the country. These threats have made the work of the press difficult. Despite the precarious security situation, some journalists have had the courage to continue working in So
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uth Sudan but in a manner that minimises risks. While studies have been carried out on war and conflict reporting around the world, little attention has been paid to coping strategies for local journalists in South Sudan. This study sought to investigate threats, coping strategies and motivational factors for local journalists working in the private media houses in the country. A qualitative approach with emphatic in-depth interviews was purposively used to obtain data from 21 respondents including reporters and editors from seven media houses in Juba. The findings show that journalists face threats including arbitrary arrests, intimidation and incarceration. Others have been beaten, tortured and in some cases murdered. To continue doing their professional jobs, journalists in private media institutions have applied well-planned coping strategies as a means of protection. These strategies include self-censorship, publishing of threats via mass media channels, use of institutional rules, self-consciousness and avoidance of sensitive stories, among others. The analysis of the data clearly demonstrated that motivational factors played a crucial role in the coping process at both institutional and individual levels because the journalists relied on journalistic principles as their basis to create context-relevant coping strategies." (Abstract)
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"Communication the world over is a vital cog in communities. The sender and the receiver play different and complementary roles in information dissemination. Be that as it may, many contemporary information senders are faced with different forms of harassment. The advent of social media has seen a r
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ise in independent journalism and this form of journalism is not immune to harassment as such many independent journalists are harassed online. This chapter as a result unravels the emotional implications of online harassment on journalists and its repercussions for a democratic society and press freedom. Using a case of four selected Zimbabwean journalists, the chapter untangles the vocabulary used by cyber-bullies and how that affects the emotional makeup and professional outlook of different journalists. The qualitative research methodology was used as the research unfolded. The Democratic-Participant Media Theory and the Symbolic Interactionism Theory were used to analyse the operational values of independent journalists and how their audience reacts since communication is a two-way traffic. Data gathered were analysed using the thematic analysis approach. The chapter found that five major emotions are triggered by online harassment of freelance journalists on different media platforms in Zimbabwe which are surprise and or betrayal, fear, anger, happiness, and disgust. The study thus concludes that there is a need to monitor and provide counselling sessions to journalists to mitigate the negative impact of online harassment on the form, structure, and content of news articles in Zimbabwe." (Abstract)
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"This chapter addresses the issue of harassment in the media space in Mozambique. In fact, the issue of harassment of women in the media is a complex and multifaceted problem that can manifest in many ways. One aspect of this issue is the representation of women in media. Women are often objectified
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and portrayed in a sexualized manner in advertising, movies, TV shows, and other forms of media. This can contribute to a culture of sexism and misogyny, which can lead to harassment and violence against women. Another aspect of the issue is the harassment of women who work in the media industry. In general, women who work in journalism, broadcasting, and other media-related fields often face harassment and discrimination based on their gender. This can include sexual harassment, online harassment, and other forms of abuse. In recent years, there has been increased attention and discussion around these issues, with many women sharing their experiences of harassment and abuse in the media industry. This situation happens not only in countries of the Global North, but also in the South. To minimize the situation, some organizations have also taken steps to address the problem, including implementing policies and procedures to prevent and respond to harassment. One example of this is the limited representation of women in leadership positions within media organizations in Mozambique. In addition to that, this chapter shows that the situation of harassment against women in the media space seems to be a forgotten issue in Mozambique, as there is no debate on the subject or there are few reported cases." (Abstract)
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"This article explores the challenges faced by the media education and curricula development in Pakistan, and how the safety of journalists is apportioned in the courses and curriculum of mass communication in different universities. The study uses a mixed method research, including quantitative app
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roach through surveys from one hundred and fifty media students from different universities of Pakistan, it further uses qualitative in-depth interview method in which fifteen media academics are interviewed. The research reveals that safety of journalists has never been a priority in the curriculum, even if the future journalists are really hungry to be educated and trained to cover any hostile event, pandemics and conflict sensitive reporting, and to cope with post coverage traumas. Safety of journalists has been occasionally discussed in lectures on the demand of students, but can never get a space in the mass communication curriculum. This study lays the foundation of ESCR Model of Journalism Education that deals with ethics and safety in crisis and risks. It further suggests the training of academics themselves; and collaboration of media professionals with the academia to realistically develop a curriculum taking into account what media industry and future journalists actually need to mug up." (Abstract)
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"Amid increasing threats and assaults against journalists across the globe, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP) province in northwest Pakistan remains one of the most dangerous places in the world for journalists. Whereas online harassment is increasingly affecting journalists, experiences of online harassment
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of KP journalists have not been previously examined. This study explored the experiences of online harassment of regional KP journalists, the psychological ramifications of their exposure, and the association between online harassment and their ability to effectively perform their jobs in digital news environments. Of the recruited 299 journalists, nearly two-thirds reported experiencing online harassment. The experiences were generally infrequent, and were associated with depression, anxiety, stress, and occupational dysfunction. This study underscores the importance of understanding online harassment of journalists in conflicts zones, and how it may impact their ability to perform their professional duties, and proposes possible solutions and directions for future research and interventions." (Abstract)
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"This study examines the coverage of the COVID-19 pandemic by the four leading newspapers of Pakistan—Dawn, The News, Daily Times and The Nation—when they were responsible for informing and educating the public during a health crisis hit by conspiracy theories. The researchers utilized content a
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nalysis to analyze 1,124 news stories. The findings reveal less emphasis was placed on scientifically investigating the causes, precautions and care of coronavirus and dispelling public misconceptions." (Abstract)
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"The media industry of Nigeria has been significantly impacted by sexual harassment and it has had a very negative effect on women media workers. One major issue which I will articulate in my chapter is the absence of an overarching media policy framework addressing sexual harassment with clear pena
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lties to punish perpetrators. In my chapter, I define sexual harassment as an offence primarily perpetrated by men in the industry who hold senior positions in the media industry. I discuss the importance of a media regulatory framework and I use the Nigerian Bar Association sexual harassment policy as an example of what the media industry should emulate. My chapter includes a survey with key informant interviews. This helped to indicate the prevalence of the problem of sexual harassment through the lens of survivors in an anecdotal style whilst external research and surveys from other sources have been incorporated in my chapter to inform the conclusions and recommendations." (Abstract)
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"Grounded in the intersections of culture, gender and occupation, this paper explores the challenges and barriers faced by “elite” Pakistani women working in a journalistic profession steeped in male dominance shaped by patriarchal values. One-on-one in-depth interviews were conducted with nine
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highly experienced women journalists from television, radio, digital and print media. The findings reveal a range of occupational hazards confronting women journalists in Pakistan: (i) Pervasive exclusion and discrimination relegating women to soft news beats and imposing hard glass ceilings’ hindering career progression; (ii) Systemic income disparities and job precarity, emphasizing pronounced economic disadvantage for female journalists; (iii) Instances of sexual and emotional harassment at the workplace; (iv) Prevalent online public harassment and cyberbullying; and (v) Psychological stressors arising from the trauma of harassment compounded by the stigma of seeking psychological help. These findings underscore the critical interplay of gender and culture within the journalism profession, accentuating not only employment disparities but also exclusion, discrimination, and harassment. These factors not only obstruct career advancement but also inflict psychological trauma." (Abstract)
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"This chapter discusses the monitoring of violations of the right to life and safety of journalists. The safety of journalists is a prerequisite for the provision of access to reliable information to the public, but journalists worldwide face risks as a result of their work. Monitoring violations he
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lps to get an overview of these risks and to create effective intervention strategies and policies accordingly. However, comprehensive, harmonized data about violations beyond the number of killed journalists are missing, making it difficult to make analyses and compare data across countries. State institutions often lack the willingness to respond to data on threats to journalists gathered by civil society. This results in an alarming statistic of impunity for crimes committed against journalists showing a failure of states to protect journalists. Better and more comprehensive data collection, and better systematic categorization and comparability of data are believed to contribute to more urgency of states to act to end impunity." (Abstract)
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"The goal of this study was to examine the efficacy of art therapy in the treatment of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and the propensity to quit journalism among Nigerian journalists covering banditry attacks. The researchers utilized a quasi-experiment as the design for the study and sampled
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327 journalists. The result of the study showed that at baseline, journalists reported high PTSD symptoms and a propensity to quit journalism, but after the intervention, journalists who received the art therapy intervention reported a significant drop in their PTSD symptoms and the propensity to quit the pen profession. This suggests that art therapy is a cost-effective way of treating PTSD among journalists covering dangerous assignments and reducing high labour turnover in the profession." (Abstract)
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"The transformations in the media and political landscapes in Egypt over the last decade and their implications on media pluralism and freedom of expression are well documented. However, less is known about how Egyptian journalists themselves experience these changes; how their relationships with au
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thorities and ordinary citizens are being redefined, and how journalists’ routines and practices are evolving. Through interviews with twenty Egyptian journalists working for different types of media outlets (government-owned, independent, privately owned, opposition and new start-ups), this article records and analyses journalists’ experiences with both authorities and citizens amid the current transitional period, assessing to what extent these relationships and experiences are impacting journalism practices in Egypt. Findings reveal that journalists perceive a hostile stance from both officials and ordinary citizens towards journalists due to a common belief that journalists played a role in the removal of previous regimes and therefore are seen as “destabilising agents”. This prevents journalists from accessing both information and news sources, forcing journalists to produce unified content and practice self-censorship and “service journalism” as opposed to original and investigative stories. These challenges are discussed in light of research on media and democratic transition." (Abstract)
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"This chapter looks at the status of the freedom of the press, and the legal possibilities and obstacles that affect media’s ability to hold power to account and safeguard the principles of democracy. The legal environment in countries as diverse as the United States, Egypt, and Sweden differs gre
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atly, and affects the ability of journalists to report news to citizens that enables them to take part in the public discourse, based on theories on the public sphere. And according to theories on democracy, informed citizens can be seen as a requirement for democracy. Thus, certain conditions are necessary for journalism to be considered the fourth estate, and arguments for this are based on comparing the working conditions for independent professional journalists by semi-structured interviews with local journalists. Aspects discussed are access to official documents, media’s right to protect anonymous sources and the increase in intimidatory tactics against reporters, as the three countries are in different ways applying laws in order to regulate the media and their ability to hold power to account." (Abstract)
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"The COVID-19 pandemic has caused an increased challenge for journalists and media professionals worldwide. However, there is a lack of information on these adversities in many developing countries, including Bangladesh. Our study aims to explore these challenges and risks associated with journalism
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, including those who cover the health beat of news agencies in Bangladesh during the pandemic. The study follows a qualitative research approach as we interviewed national and local level journalists of leading newspapers, television channels, news agencies, and online news portals of Bangladesh. Twenty-eight in-depth interviews (IDI) were conducted following purposive sampling technique and a semi-structured interview schedule was used for data collection. The collected data were audio-taped, transcribed, and later on analyzed thematically. Five themes emerged from our findings as the participants reported of challenges in adopting to the new communication technologies and methods, job insecurity and financial crises, loss of freedom of expression, problems accessing credible information, and health and safety issues. We conclude that specific protocols on job/salary protection, training on new information and communication technologies (ICTs), precise laws and policies on circulation and access to information, and a support system for sound physical and mental health of the journalists need to be prioritised during the pandemic." (Abstract)
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"The internet and digital platforms have contributed to the democratisation of the public sphere. A number of studies have shown how the internet and new digital platforms have brought subaltern voices into the mainstream. However, recent studies show that on the flip side, the cybersphere also prom
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otes new forms of harassment that tend to disproportionately target women. In the field of journalism, online harassment that targets women journalists has reached epidemic proportions. Although several scholars have examined the threat posed by online harassment on women journalists, most of these studies have been conducted in developed countries. There is limited understanding of how the scourge manifests itself in African countries where patriarchy is still deeply entrenched, legislation is underdeveloped, and the media ecology is largely unsafe. Using a scoping review of existing literature on online harassment of women journalists in African countries, and a theoretical lens consisting of cyberfeminism and the role of the media in a democracy, this study examines emergent forms and patterns of online harassment experienced by women journalists in African countries, the different responses to the scourge, and the implications on democracy. Our findings show that women journalists in African countries experience different forms of online harassment that include cyberbullying, gendered trolling, threatening messages, and surveillance. Online harassment of women journalists in African countries largely takes place at an individual level as there are limited multi-level strategies that have been developed to engage with the scourge. The evidence analysed in the study shows that female journalists in Africa are more vulnerable to online harassment compared to their counterparts in the Global North due to the absence of multi-level governance interventions, deep-seated patriarchy, and semi-authoritarian contexts in which they work." (Abstract)
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"This chapter explores Nigerian female journalists’ lived experiences with harassment in and outside the newsroom. Using a qualitative approach, 12 in-depth interviews were conducted with female journalists in broadcast media houses in Nigeria, and themes that emerged from the data obtained via in
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terviews were used to discuss the study’s findings. The study found that female journalists experience varying forms of harassment in and outside the newsroom, including sexism, gender bias, sexual harassment, physical harassment and attacks, verbal attacks, and unsolicited dates. Female journalists expressed varying emotional responses to harassment experienced in and outside the newsroom. These emotional responses include shock and fear, frustration and venting, feelings of worthlessness, and a firm resolve to succeed in journalism. Also, the study revealed that female journalists predominantly used emotion-focused and problem-focused coping strategies such as ignoring the harassment, confronting and reporting, and taking a break from the work environment to deal with the harassment and threats they encountered. These findings have implications and are relevant to future interventions and policies for improving female journalists’ safety in and outside newsrooms." (Abstract)
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