"This paper examines intersections between social disadvantage and digital inequality in low-income household settings using situational analysis. Partnering with social service organisations, we conducted qualitative fieldwork research over 12 months with low-income households in disadvantaged subu
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rbs in Tasmania, Australia. The research involved home visits, phone interviews, technology tours, and learning biographies with members of households. Findings emphasise the way outcomes of digital connectivity and internet use are not only individual – they are also shared and collective, and this has been a blind spot for digital inequality research framed by methodological individualism. We emphasise the need to shift attention from individual digital skills to collective digital capabilities, emphasising sociotechnical functions embedded in networks of shared resources and practices. Situational analysis revealed digital capabilities as collective investments and workarounds, as participants responded to expanding digital and life management demands. The study contributes to understanding the interaction between digital and social inclusion in low-income household contexts. It highlights the way collective capabilities and ‘digital bootstrapping’ operate in resource-scare environments, providing potential points of intervention beyond individualised notions of digital self-reliance." (Abstract)
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"Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) face unique development challenges. Higher transportation costs, trade barriers, and limited connectivity impede economic integration. LLDCs rely on neighbouring countries for access to trade routes, resulting in delays and higher costs. These countries also
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tend to lag in investment, limiting resources available for infrastructure and human capital development. Together, these factors undermine competitiveness and slow development. Digital technologies offer transformative potential for LLDCs. Information and communication technologies (ICTs) can mitigate physical barriers by enabling access to global markets, improving logistics and public services, and expanding education and entrepreneurship opportunities. When combined with enabling policies and investment, they can accelerate structural transformation." (Introduction)
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"This edition’s findings highlight important progress: in 2024, mobile broadband services have become more affordable in most regions and for most income groups, and a growing number of countries are meeting the Broadband Commission’s target of entry-level broadband services costing less than 2
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per cent of monthly GNI per capita. These gains reflect the efforts of governments, regulators, and industry to expand access and reduce cost barriers.
Yet for far too many people around the world, the cost of connectivity services continues to account for a disproportionate share of income. This prevents them from fully participating in the digital economy, accessing vital services, or exercising their rights in an increasingly digital world. Fixed broadband remains largely unaffordable for vast segments of the population, especially in low-income countries. Even where services are affordable on average, significant gaps persist within countries, disproportionately affecting those who are already marginalized. And as digital services become more bandwidth-intensive, affordability must be assessed not just in terms of price, but also in relation to the quality and adequacy of the service." (Foreword)
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"With our modern world relying more and more on Internet-based technologies, this timely book takes a renewed look at the ever-increasing digital divide between developing and more technologically advanced countries and the resulting impacts on achieving the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Jef
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frey James conducts a methodological and conceptual review of the patterns and shortfalls arising from the technological divide between countries, recommending a more proactive response for countries that are struggling to minimise the gap. He juxtaposes the current usage of technology coupled with the prohibitive cost of accessing the Internet in the Global South against the cost of living in poverty, the lack of literacy, and learned digital skills. The book addresses these key issues and investigates the current gender disparity, offering solutions for implementing low-cost policies such as the recent successful launch of the inexpensive JioPhone handset." (Publisher description)
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"This paper investigates open public data and data sharing reforms in Australia (2018–2022) and their potential role in deepening the ‘data divide’. In the contemporary datafied welfare state, open public data and data sharing are increasingly vexed issues in times of data-driven artificial in
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telligence (AI). We scrutinise public consultation surrounding the establishment of the Australian Data Availability and Transparency Act 2022 (DAT Act). Through topic modelling and critical discourse analysis, the study examines the representation and concerns of marginalised groups in the reform process. We highlight the overlooked role of non-profits and civil society in the public data ecosystem. The analysis emphasises the significant yet unacknowledged contributions of these organisations in advocating for data equity and justice. We argue that responsible and equitable public data practices do not just depend on administrative and technical procedures for data sharing but are fundamentally entwined with the social and institutional hierarchies in which public data is produced and used. The study calls for greater inclusion and support for civil society organisations to bridge the data divide, contributing to broader debates on the merits and challenges of open data and data sharing practices within a data justice framework." (Abstract)
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"With a special focus on the impact of the COVID-19, the collection is based on the 2021 Digital Inclusion, Policy and Research Conference, with chapters from both academia and civic organizations. The COVID-19 pandemic has changed citizens' relationship with digital technologies for the foreseeable
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future. Many people's main channels of communication were transferred to digital services, platforms, and apps. Everything 'went online': our families, friends, partners, health, work, news, politics, culture, arts and protesting. Yet access to digital technologies remained highly unequal. This brought digital inclusion policy and research to the fore, highlighting to policymakers and the public the 'hidden' challenges and impacts of digital exclusion and inequalities. The cutting-edge volume offers research findings and policy case studies that explore digital inclusion from the provision of basic access to digital, via education and digital literacy, and on to issues of gender and technology. Case studies are drawn from varied sources including the UK, Australia, South America, and Eastern Europe, providing a valuable resource in the pursuit of social equity and justice." (Publisher description)
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"This volume addresses the concept of “(in)nocent lies” in the media – beyond the concept of misleading information online, this extends to a deliberate effort to spread misinformation, disinformation and conspiracy theories – and proposes a critical approach to tackle the issue in related i
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nterdisciplinary fields. The book takes a multidisciplinary and international approach, addressing the digital divide and global inequality, as well as algorithmic bias, how misinformation harms vulnerable groups, social lynching and the effect of misinformation on certain social, political and cultural agendas, among other topics. Arranged thematically, the chapters paint a nuanced and original picture of this issue." (Publisher description)
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"Ghana is among Sub-Saharan Africa’s leaders in digital transformation. Over the past decade, the government has put the key institutions, legislative frameworks, strategies, and policies in place that are necessary to drive change. The Ministry of Communications and Digitalization leads and coord
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inates development and implementation of a core set of policies and strategies that are digitally transforming the government, economy, and society. The ICT for Accelerated Development (ICT4AD) Policy has guided this journey for more than a decade. A new Digital Economy Policy is drafted and under review to drive the next stage of Ghana’s digital development. The National Financial Inclusion and Development Strategy and the National Cyber Security Policy and Strategy have also been key. Ghana adopted an inclusive approach to developing its cybersecurity strategy, which contributed to improved cybersecurity capacity and considered citizens’ online safety and freedoms. However, a clear strategy for protecting critical national infrastructure is missing. Ghana has been a pioneer and champion of digital government transformation in West Africa over the past decade, with funding and support from the World Bank. Important whole-of-government platforms and services have been put in place, including the Government Wide Area Network (GWAN), which provides internet connection to more than 1,000 district assemblies, hospitals, police stations, and post offices across the country; a National Data Center; the Smart workplace suite, which includes email and productivity tools for government employees; and Ghana.gov portal, a one-stop-shop for citizen services. Still, digital government transformation is incomplete. Easy, efficient, online government services are in demand, but the Ghana.gov portal options are limited, and most major government service providers have their own separate online services portals. The national identity Ghana Card could enhance digital service delivery by providing a universally recognized, secure, and easy-to-use means of digital identification and authentication for citizens when accessing both public and private digital services, but the current identification system is not integrated with other government-operated databases, significantly reducing its many potential applications. The Regional Coordinating Councils, and metropolitan, municipal, and district assemblies (MMDAs) are just now embarking on the digital transformation journey. The Ministry of Local Government and Rural Development coordinates their efforts. Challenges for Ghana’s remaining efforts at digital government transformation include adequate funding to manage and maintain its connectivity and data center infrastructure, affordable internet for regional governments, inadequate digital literacy and skills among mid-level and regional staff, or related national training programs. A big skill gap exists in cybersecurity; Ghana faces a deficit of skilled cybersecurity professionals. The government also needs to improve efforts at stakeholder engagement and awareness-raising when developing new policy proposals." (Executive summary, pages 11-12)
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"In an age of digitalization, who still refuses to use digital technology? Drawing on nationally-representative Chinese General Social Survey data, this article finds that about half of Chinese households do not actively use the Internet or epayment systems, despite their ubiquity. This article esti
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mates the effects of socioeconomic resources on these technologies’ (non-)use across urban, resident but previously urban, resident but previously rural, and rural hukou household registrations in China. Educational attainment is associated with higher odds of use among rural hukou, but the size of this effect is nearly double compared to urban hukou. Additionally, being female increases the odds of use among urban and resident but previously urban hukou, and lowers the odds of use in rural hukou, but which are attenuated by the mediating effects of education. The results give credence to education as a direct and indirect mechanism for digital skills development, especially for rural households. Individuals proximal to rural living conditions have fewer opportunities to learn about digital technology, resulting in greater dependency on education as a rare source of skills training. Simultaneously, education indirectly creates opportunities for women to learn digital skills by improving chances for higher-status job participation that require information management skills, especially in rural regions where traditional cultural norms constrain opportunities for upward mobility. Ultimately, digital technology non-use is traced not to lack of interest, but to lack of skills development opportunities among the socioeconomically disadvantaged." (Abstract)
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"Understanding the ubiquitous digitalization of everyday life and associated inequalities presupposes rich conceptualizations of the associated social dynamics. Accordingly, we investigate digital service domestication as a social dimension of people’s lives, building on concepts that center users
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’ everyday lives and agency. We adopt the perspective of people who find the use of digital services difficult and examine the hurdles they face when attempting access. Our data consists of semi-structured interviews with migrant women (N = 22) living in Finland, where most essential services are digitalized. The study highlights the societal boundedness of the participants’ agency, which we maintain is a key dynamic of inequality. We classify digital services in four categories, interactive communication services; information, media, and entertainment services; private customer services, and public health and social welfare services. The first two are voluntary digital services that did not create insurmountable barriers for the participants, but enabled them to conduct action they valued. By contrast, essential private and public services require mastering more complicated service technologies, a foreign language, and complex contents. Our results highlight how diversity-blind essential digital services produce and reinforce inequalities. Our analysis emphasizes the need for researchers to consider the coercive dimensions of digitalization." (Abstract)
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"Looking at patterns between those with meaningful connectivity — defined as having daily internet use with 4G-like speeds, owning a smartphone, and an unlimited access point at home, work, or a place of study — and those with just basic or no internet access at all, we saw key distinctions betw
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een women based on geography and education in our study sample which impacted their experiences of the internet. Across our six survey countries [Bangladesh, Cambodia, Ghana, Mozambique, South Africa, Uganda], women with a tertiary education were nearly twice as likely to be meaningfully connected compared to their peers with less education. Women living in rural areas were three times more likely to lack internet access than their urban-dwelling peers, while women living in cities were over 50% more likely to have meaningful connectivity. Meaningful connectivity enabled women around the world to learn, earn, access government and financial services, and connect with family and communities, thereby also saving essential time and money in transport costs. Women’s educational level and having meaningful connectivity are the strongest predictors of finding information online or participating in the digital economy. Women int erviewed in underserved localities — such as remote villaes in India and impoverished urban settlements in Nigeria — reported restricted digital access due to: lack of infrastructure (such as mobile towers); high cost of devices and data services; income-generating activities and unpaid care work leave little to no time available to access connectivity or digital skills educational initiatives; dependency on men in their family to use devices [...]
We propose four tiers of achievable solutions — and call attention to policymakers, investors, and the ICT sector at large to fast-track meaningful connectivity and inclusive digital development for all:
1. Deep investments that use substantial resourcing to make profound changes in a specific policy area or for a specific community. Universal Service and Access Funds (USAFs) represent a key mechanism across the majority world for deep investment strategies. When well executed, they provide clear interventions with measurable changes in the lives of affected communities.
2. Grand visions that combine years of effort with substantial funding resources to revolutionize the status quo. National broadband plans and other key strategy documents — when appropriately supported and resourced through implementation stages — represent a core example of grand visions within this space.
3. Easy wins that are comparatively discreet and specific changes that can still create tangible value at their scale. Gender data — collecting it, creating it, analyzing it, and using it — is a critical component to several easy wins that have been implemented in recent years. Policymakers can start from this level of research and measurement to make clear steps in the right direction.
4. Scalable systems that represent large, programmatic change in the pre-existing ways of working. Multistakeholder approaches and gender targets can provide the foundation for long-term, ongoing processes that scale progress towards closing the gender digital divide. By using policy and regulation to create mechanisms and procedures that consider digital inclusion, policymakers can build habits and routines that gradually and consistently change the course of history." (Executive summary, pages 2-4)
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"In this special edition of ITU's Facts and Figures series, we explore the impressive progress and ongoing obstacles SIDS encounter amid the digital revolution. On the occasion of the fourth International Conference on Small Island Developing States (SIDS4), our goal is to provide stakeholders with
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accurate data to inform their decisions. The connectivity challenge has grown more complex over the last decade. It's insufficient to simply connect the unconnected. Universal and meaningful connectivity – the possibility for everyone to enjoy a safe, satisfying, enriching, productive and online experience at an affordable cost – is the new policy imperative to harness the potential of connectivity and enable digital transformation.
SIDS share common issues: remoteness, limited markets, narrow economic bases, and high costs for energy and infrastructure. Moreover, they are highly vulnerable to climate change impacts, threatening their existence. Digital connectivity is crucial in mitigating these challenges by enabling access to information, facilitating communication, and creating economic opportunities. It can improve disaster response, management, and access to critical services, often constrained by geographic and resource limitations in SIDS. This publication offers a current view of SIDS connectivity and highlights gaps in our understanding, underscoring the urgent need for investment in data infrastructure and statistical capabilities as part of their development strategies." (Foreword)
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"Contrary to the prevailing narratives of "digital empowerment" and opportunities for every individual, this book argues that digitalisation massively curtails social advancement opportunities, consolidating existing social relations. From a spatial perspective, Scheffer demonstrates how socially di
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sadvantaged groups are faced with reproducing mechanisms as part of a new data economy. Surprisingly, the more intensively digital services are used, the more this happens. Building on Löw´s sociology of space and Bourdieu´s concept of habitus, this book shows how practices of social exclusion are transferred to the digital present in an innovative way. The image of "mirrored" spaces describes a new mechanism that explains social exclusion in the age of digitalization." (Publisher description)
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"The United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) place great emphasis on inequalities and pledge to leave no-one behind. For the field of digital development, this objective presents a particular challenge. While digital technologies can be utilized to reduce certain inequalities, they ar
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e also linked to reproductive mechanisms, reinforcing existing inequalities. In the context of an increasing digitalization of development, particular attention must therefore be paid to the link between digital inequalities and the quest to leave noone behind. This article analyses the integration of intersectional inequalities in the SDG framework and the resulting need for coherent policies, and demonstrates the parallels between this challenge and the reproductive nature of digital inequalities. On this basis, we argue that the issue of digital inequalities should be mainstreamed in development programming in order to avoid worsening existing inequalities through digital development. Moreover, we discuss recommendations for a potential post-2030 agenda succeeding the SDGs." (Abstract)
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"The Tanzania DECA report presents the findings and recommendations of the Tanzania DECA. It outlines the key aspects of Tanzania’s digital ecosystem and provides 13 recommendations for creating a more inclusive, safe, and enabling environment. Guided by USAID/Tanzania priorities: i) foundational
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skills of children below age 15; ii) increasing empowerment, productivity, and engagement of Tanzanians aged 15 to 35; and iii) strengthening capacity of state and non-state actors to benefit future generations, the DECA process included desk research, consultations with USAID/Tanzania technical offices, and 76 key informant interviews with stakeholders from civil society, academia, and the private and public sectors. Key findings include: while the Government of Tanzania prioritized increasing connectivity for all citizens over the last two decades, last-mile connectivity gaps persist; there is a large usage gap in Tanzania that is attributed to factors including lack of device and mobile broadband affordability, low levels of digital literacy, and a dearth of locally relevant content; while there has been greater openness over the past two years, nearly all of the restrictive laws remain in place and prospects for amending or repealing them remain uncertain; the government is committed to developing and promoting digital government services and systems and often relies on software solutions developed in-house; while the government has a National Cyber Security Strategy (NCSS) 2018-2022 that outlines a comprehensive framework for detecting, preventing, and combating cyber threats, the strategy is not shared widely or publicly; mobile financial services are at the forefront of digital financial services uptake; Tanzania’s startup ecosystem is growing, with startups in a variety of sectors, although it is in its infancy and not yet enabled by explicit policies or regulations; E-commerce is in early stage development in both supply and demand. Weak enabling factors such as logistics infrastructure, addressing systems, and consumer protections regulations prevent the sector from realizing its full potential." (https://www.usaid.gov/digital-development)
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"The Mali Digital Ecosystem Country Assessment (DECA) report presents the findings and recommendations of the Mali DECA. It outlines the key aspects of Mali’s digital ecosystem and provides 11 recommendations for creating a more inclusive, safe, and enabling environment. Guided by 3 USAID/Mali pri
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orities, which include i) improved governance for stronger democratic institution; ii) solidified and deepened development gains in targeted areas; and iii) improved outcomes across the humanitarian, development, and peace nexus to save lives and increase resiliency, the DECA process included desk research, consultations with USAID/Mali technical offices, and 63 key informant interviews with stakeholders from civil society, academia, and the private and public sectors. Key findings include: Mali has made great strides in building out its Information and Communications Technology (ICT) infrastructure, but political instability and conflict hinder further investment; the Government of Mali’s commitment to digital development is aspirational, but existing services, policies, and governance are at an early stage; Mali does not have a central policy or regulation guiding the digitization of government services and systems; Mali’s civil society and media have enjoyed historical freedom of expression, but new policies threaten the freedom of the press and increase organizations’ needs for cybersecurity awareness and tools; insurgent groups are accelerating their use of social media for propaganda dissemination and Mali’s broader population needs better tools to counter disinformation; Mali does not have a policy framework for guiding the development of the e-commerce sector; Mali’s tech startup scene lacks true innovation or competition and operates informally in an unfavorable environment." (https://www.usaid.gov/digital-development)
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"The Honduras Digital Ecosystem Country Assessment (DECA) report presents the findings and recommendations of the Honduras DECA. It outlines the key aspects of Honduras' digital ecosystem and provides 9 recommendations for creating a more inclusive, safe, and enabling environment. Guided by USAID/Ho
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nduras priorities, which include i) facilitating a systems change approach - social, economic, justice and security, environmental, education; ii) partnering and co-creating with the private sector to capitalize on shared values, forster innovation, and facilitating joint investment where interests align; and iii) generating opportunities for citizens - especially youth - to actively engage and invest in their future in Honduras, the DECA process included desk research, consultations with USAID/Honduras technical offices, and 76 key informant interviews with stakeholders from civil society, academia, and the private and public sectors. Key findings include: digital transformation is a priority of President Xiomara Castro’s new administration; an outdated telecommunications legal and regulatory environment is hindering connectivity expansion, affordability, and accessibility; efforts to digitize education are succeeding, but digital literacy lags and requires a concerted strategy; there are not effective data protection and cybersecurity regulations; the Government of Honduras lacks the capacity to prosecute digital crimes; there is a focus on countering mis- and disinformation by civil society, but a joint strategy is required for greater impact; the level of financial inclusion continues to be low due to systematic weaknesses, such as poor connectivity infrastructure, and supply-side factors, such as the lack of relevant traditional and digital financial services; e-commerce is slow to take off in Honduras, except in the two largest cities, Tegucigalpa and San Pedro Sula; the digital talent pool does not currently meet the labor market demand." (https://www.usaid.gov/digital-development)
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"The Guatemala DECA report presents the findings and recommendations of the Guatemala DECA. It outlines the key aspects of Guatemala’s digital ecosystem and provides nine recommendations for creating a more inclusive, safe, and enabling environment. Guided by USAID/Guatemala priorities: i) partner
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with the Government of Guatemala and other stakeholders to increase economic prosperity, inclusion, and stability in areas with high irregular migration; ii) partner with the Government of Guatemala and other stakeholders to strengthen effective and accountable governance to improve quality of life and reduce irregular migration; and iii) partner with the Government of Guatemala and other stakeholders to improve justice and security to reduce irregular migration, the DECA process included desk research, consultations with USAID/Guatemala technical offices, 76 key informant interviews with stakeholders from civil society, academia, and the private and public sectors, and five focus group discussions with USAID project participants. Key findings include: Guatemala does not have a central strategy or policy for the digitalization of government services or systems; while Guatemala is home to relatively high network coverage, gaps in internet use remain and innovative solutions face regulatory barriers; the digital divide persists across gender, geography, income, education and literacy, and ethnicity, and was exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic; digital rights are insufficiently protected and disinformation and harassment are present in the online space; over the last decade, the Government of Guatemala adopted long-term policies to support the development of the digital economy; progress is unclear but data show there has been some impact on financial inclusion; although in its early days, there is unprecedented growth in Guatemala’s startup ecosystem, specifically FinTech." (https://www.usaid.gov/digital-development)
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"The El Salvador Digital Ecosystem Country Assessment (DECA) report presents the findings and recommendations of the El Salvador DECA. It outlines the key aspects of El Salvador’s digital ecosystem and provides 10 recommendations for creating a more inclusive, safe, and enabling environment. Guide
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d by USAID/El Salvador priorities, which include i) security increased for likely migrants; ii) jobs and income potential increased for likely migrants; and iii) government responsiveness, accountability, and transparency improved, the DECA process included desk research, consultations with USAID/El Salvador technical offices, and 101 key informant interviews with stakeholders from civil society, academia, and the private and public sectors. Key findings include: digital transformation is a priority for El Salvador; a weak regulatory environment and the lack of clear government strategies have held back digitization efforts; stakeholders frequently cite improving digital connectivity and citizens’ digital literacy skills as recommendations for greater digital adoption; cybersecurity policy and initiatives are underdeveloped and the awareness of effective defense measures is low across the digital ecosystem; most Salvadorans are still unbanked. Sixty-four percent of Salvadorans have no financial institution (traditional bank or mobile money) account. Only 11 percent of Salvadorans had a mobile money account as of 2021; GOES embraced bitcoin in September 2021, spotlighting El Salvador on the world stage; the COVID-19 pandemic spurred digital uptake among micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs)." (https://www.usaid.gov/digital-development)
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